4. (a) Migration is the reflection of regional disparities. What socio-economic and demographic consequences are experienced at the place of origin and destination? 20Marks (PYQ/2024)

Answer:

Introduction

Migration in India is a clear manifestation of regional disparities. Economic opportunities, differences in public services, educational facilities, and infrastructural development have led people to move from less developed regions to prosperous urban centers. This migration produces distinct socio‑economic and demographic effects at both the place of origin (loss of labor, brain drain, aging populations) and the destination (urban congestion, informal sector growth, cultural diversity). Understanding these dynamics requires an integrated approach—drawing upon established models, theories, relevant legal frameworks, and various perspectives.

Models

• Push–Pull Model (Everett Lee): This model outlines how “push” factors (e.g., poverty, unemployment, poor living conditions) in origin regions such as parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh drive migrants out, while “pull” factors (e.g., higher wages, better educational and healthcare facilities) attract them to destination areas like Delhi and Mumbai. Source: Lee, 1966; Census of India (2011)
• Core–Periphery Model: In this framework, “core” areas (urban centers with high economic activity) attract resources and skilled labor, while “peripheral” regions are left with underdeveloped infrastructures and declining human capital. This model helps explain the persistent outmigration from economically lagging regions. Source: Regional Economic Geography models (Krugman, 1991)

Theories

• Neoclassical Migration Theory (Ravenstein’s Laws): Ravenstein (1885) laid the early theoretical groundwork by suggesting that migration is driven by wage differentials and job opportunities—factors that remain significant in modern India.
• Dual Labor Market Theory (Piore): Michael Piore’s work explains how urban labor markets in India develop a dual structure: while a formal sector offers higher wages, a large informal sector provides low-wage but readily available employment for migrants.
• New Economics of Migration (Stark & Bloom): This theory views migration as a household strategy for income diversification and risk reduction through remittances, which can, in turn, have both beneficial and adverse effects on regional development. Sources: Ravenstein (1885); Piore (1979); Stark & Bloom (1985)

Laws

• Migrant Labour (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1979: This Act is designed to safeguard the rights and working conditions of interstate migrant workers. Despite its intent, implementation challenges persist, limiting its effectiveness.
• Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act: This related legal framework is aimed at ensuring fair labor standards for workers who migrate across state borders. Source: Official government documents, Ministry of Labour, India

Perspectives

• Political Economy Perspective: This viewpoint examines migration as both a consequence and a driver of regional inequalities. It suggests that structural imbalances in development policies create vulnerabilities in origin regions while intensifying urban growth at the destination, potentially leading to social conflicts.
• Human Development and Social Justice Perspective: Drawing on the ideas of Amartya Sen and others, this perspective emphasizes the need to assess not just the economic outcomes but also the impacts on capabilities, social inclusion, and well‑being for both migrants and their home communities.

Case Studies

1. Delhi National Capital Region (NCR): Migrants from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar account for a significant portion of Delhi NCR’s population. The 2011 Census estimates that India’s lifetime migration rate rose to 32.7%, with urban centers like Delhi absorbing large numbers of these migrants. While the vibrant labor market fuels service and industrial growth, it has also led to severe challenges such as overcrowded housing, strained public services, and increased traffic congestion. Source: Census of India (2011); World Bank Blogs
2. Mumbai Metropolitan Region: Mumbai attracts migrants from states like Odisha, West Bengal, and even northern India. This city’s economic dynamism relies heavily on migrant labor, particularly in the informal sectors. However, the influx has resulted in challenges like the proliferation of slums, limited basic amenities, and mounting social tensions. The concentration of labor in Mumbai exemplifies the core–periphery dynamics where peripheral regions suffer from a loss of human capital. Source: PRC Report (2017); Government of India publications

Conclusion

Migration in India, driven by regional disparities, creates multifaceted socio‑economic and demographic consequences—ranging from brain drain and aging populations at the origin to urban congestion and informalization at the destination. By applying models such as the Push–Pull and Core–Periphery, alongside theories by Ravenstein, Piore, and Stark & Bloom, and supported by legal frameworks and diverse perspectives, policymakers can better address these imbalances and promote more inclusive regional development.