Geography Optional Syllabus

GEOGRAPHY OPTIONAL – SYLLABUS DETAILING

PAPER I

Part 1: Physical Geography:

1. Geomorphology
2. Climatology
3. Oceanography
4. Biogeography
5. Environment Geography.

UNIT I. Geomorphology

1. Factors controlling landform development

1.1 Structure, process and time

1.2 Geomorphological Theories:

1. G. K. Gilbert
2. W .M. Davis
3. W. Penck
4. L.C. King
5. J.T. Hack
6. M. Morisawa
7. S. A. Schumm

2. Earth’s Movement: Endogenetic and exogenetic forces

2.1 Endogenetic Geomorphic Movements

2.1.1 Diastrophism

a. Orogenetic Forces

b. Epeirogenetic Forces

2.1.2 Catastrophism

2.2 Exogenetic Geomorphic Movements

2.2.1 Denudation

2.2.2 Weathering

a. Physical Weathering

b. Mechanical Weathering

c. Chemical Weathering

d. Biological Weathering

2.3 Erosion

2.4 Transportation

2.5 Deposition

2.6 Mass Wasting

2.7 Mass Movement

3. Origin and evolution of the earth’s crusts:

3.1 Various Theories and Hypothesis of Origin of Universe and Earth: Nebular Hypothesis and Big Bang Theory

3.2 Evolution of Earth: Lithosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Biosphere

4. Fundamentals of Geomagnetism

4.1 Geomagnetism

4.2 Magnetic Poles & Geomagnetic Poles

4.3 Geomagnetic Reversal

a. Short term

b. Long term

4.4 Sunspot theory

4.5 Theories about origin of earth’s magnetism

• Gilbert Theory
• Rock Magnetism
• Dynamo Theory

5. Physical conditions of the earth’s interior

5.1 Sources of Information: Direct and Indirect

5.2Evidences from the theories of the origin of the Earth

5.3 Different layers of Earth

5.4 Recent Views: Crust, Mantle and Core

6. Geosynclines

6.1 Theory of Kober, Hall and Dana, Haug

6.2 Phases of the Mountain Building

6.3 Types of geosynclines

6.4 The Modern Concept of Geosyncline

7. Continental drift

7.1 Continental Drift Theory of Taylor and Wegner

• Various Stages of Continental Drift Theory
• Forces responsible for Continental Drift
• Evidence in support of the Continental Drift Theory
• Criticism of Continental Drift Theory

7.2 Post Drift Studies

• Sea floor spreading by Henry Hess
• Thermal Convection Current theory of Holmes
• Current views based on Plate Tectonic Theory

8. Isostasy

8.1 Concepts of Airy, Pratt, Hayford and Bowie, Jolly and Holmes

8.1 Global Isostatic adjustments

9. Plate tectonics

9.1 Plate Concept and Types

9.2 Plates Motion

• Convergent
• Divergent
• Transform

9.3 Causes of Plate Motion

9.4 Evidences of Plates Tectonics

9.3 Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building, Volcanism and Earthquakes

10. Recent views on mountain building

10.1 Classification and types of Mountains

10.2 Geosynclinal Theory of Kobber

10.2 Thermal Convection Current theory of Holmes

11. Volcanicity

11.1 Volcanism

11.2 Classification and Types of Volcanoes

11.3 Categories of Volcanoes

11.4 Volcanic Landforms

• Intrusive Forms
• Extrusive landforms

11.2 World Distribution of Volcanoes

12. Earthquakes and Tsunamis

12.1 Plate Tectonics and Earthquakes

12.2 Distribution of Earthquakes

12.3 Process of Tsunami Generation

13. Concepts of geomorphic cycles and Land scape development

13.1 Concept of Uniformitarianism

13.2 Concepts of geomorphic cycles and Land scape development

13.2 Davisian Cycle of Erosion

• Process and Sequence
• Stages of Cycle
• Criticism

13.3 Normal Cycle of Erosion

13.4 Major Geomorphic Theories of Landscape Development

i. Cyclic School

• Davisian Theory
• Penck’s Theory
• Gilbert’s Theory
• Theory of L.C. King

ii. Non-Cyclic School

• Theory of J.T. Hack
• Theory of Morisawa
• Theory of S.A. Schumm

14. Denudation chronology

14.1 Principle of Process geomorphology

14.2 Palimpsest Topography

14.3 Denudation chronology study and Evidences

• Topographic Evidences
• Drainage Evidences
• Depositional Histories

14.4 Classical Denudational Chronology

14.5 Modern Denudational Chronology

15. Channel morphology

15.1 Channel Development

15.2 Channel Structure

• Channel banks
• Channel bed
• Thalweg

15.3 Factors Controlling Channel Morphology

15.4 Channel Classification:

• Based on Material of River Channel
  • Bedrock Channel
  • Alluvial Channel
• Based on Pattern of River Channel
  • Straight
  • Meandering
  • Braided
  • Anastomosing
  • Anabranching

15.5 Hydraulic Geometry of Channel

15.6 Channel Stability and Movement

• Vertical Channel shifts
• Lateral channel movement

16. Erosion surfaces

16.1 Types of Erosion Surface

1. True Erosion Surface
2. Peneplains
3. Pediplains
4. Desert Peneplains
5. Glacial erosion surfaces
6. Plains of Marine Denudation
7. Surface similar to erosion
   1. Etch Plains
   1. Exhumed Surfaces

16.1 Karst landform

16.2 Fluvial landform

16.3 Aeolian landform

16.4 Coastal landform

16.5 Glacial Landforms

17. Slope development

17.1 Slope decline theory of Davis

17.2 Slope replacement theory of Penck

17.3 Slope cycle theory of L.C. King

17.4 Slope failure

18. Applied Geomorphology

18.1 Application of geomorphology in regional planning,

18.2 Hazard management

18.3 Urbanization

18.4 Periglacial and Pedological process.

18.5 Man-Induced soil erosion

19. Geomorphology, economic geology and environment.

19.1 Geo-morphology and mineral exploration

19.2 Geomorphology and engineering works

UNIT II. Climatology:

1. Atmospheric composition

1.1 Origin and Evolution of Atmosphere

1.2 Major Components of Atmosphere

1.2 Gaya’s Hypothesis

1.3 Structure of Atmosphere

1. Vertical Structure of Atmosphere
2. Horizontal Structure of Atmosphere

2 Temperature and pressure belts of the world

2.1 Factors affecting Distribution of Temperature

2.2 General Characteristics of Isotherm

2.3 General Temperature Distributions

2.4 Seasonal Temperature Distribution

2.5 Atmospheric Pressure

2.6 Seasonal Variation in Distribution of Atmospheric Pressure

2.6 Winds creation

2.7 Different Pressure belts of the World

3. Heat budget of the earth

3.1 Components of heat Budget

3.2 Temporal and Spatial Perspective

i. Horizontal and Vertical temperature distribution

4. Atmospheric circulation

4.1 General Model on Atmospheric circulation

4.2 Tri-cellular cell

1. Hadley Cell
2. Ferrell Cell
3. Polar Cell

4.3 Significance of  Tri-Meridional Circulation

5. Atmospheric stability and instability

5.1 Lapse rate (Normal and Adiabatic)

5.2 Conditions of Equilibrium

1. Absolute Stability
2. Absolute Instability
3. Neutral Equilibrium
4. Conditional Instability
5. Convectional Instability

5.2 Inversion of temperature: Types and significance

5.3 Conditions of Stability and Instability

6. Planetary and local winds

6.1 Planetary winds

1. Surface Planetary Winds
2. Upper Air Planetary Winds
   1. Upper Air Westerlies
   1. Jet-Streams – Index Cycle and Types of Jet Streams
3. Local Winds
   1. Periodical and Non-periodical winds

6.3 Permanent, seasonal and local winds

7. Monsoons and jet streams

7.1 Monsoon and Indian climate

7.2 Jet Stream: Characteristics and Index cycle

7.3 Types of Jet Streams

8. Air masses and Fronts

8.1 Air Masses:

1. Primary Air Masses
   1. Temperature/Latitude
   1. Nature of Underlying Surface/Moisture
2. Secondary Air Mass (Modification in Air Masses)
   1. Thermodynamic Modification
   1. Mechanical Modification
3. Characteristics of Major Air Masses

8.2 Fronts:

1. Conditions for Front formation
2. Types of Fronts
   1. Warm Front
   1. Cold Front
   1. Stationary Front
   1. Occluded Front

9. Temperate and tropical cyclones;

9.1 Atmospheric Disturbances (Temperate Cyclones)

1. Wave Theory/Polar Front Theory
2. Barocliny Theory on cyclone formation
3. Weather Associated with Temperate Cyclones

9.2 Tropical Cyclones

1. Pre-Conditions
2. Origin and Development
   1. Insipient Stage
   1. Mature Stage
   1. Decay Stage
3. Structure of Cyclone
   1. Eye
   1. Eye-wall
   1. Outer Ring

9.3 Difference between Tropical and Temperate Cyclone

9.4 Temperate cyclones: Origin and World distribution

9.5 Tropical Cyclones: Origin and World distribution

9.6 Thunderstorms:

1. Origin and Development of Thunderstorm
   1. Cumulus Stage
   1. Mature Stage
   1. Dissipating Stage

9.7 Cloud Burst

9.8 Tornadoes

9.9 Water Spouts

10. Types and distribution of precipitation

10.1 Precipitation Process

10.2 Theories of Rainfall

1. Early Theories of Rainfall
2. Ice-Crystal Theory or Cloud Instability Theory of Bergeron
3. Collision-Coalescence Theory

10.3 Forma of Precipitation:

1. Rain
2. Drizzle
3. Snow
4. Sleet
5. Hail

10.4 Types of Precipitation

1. Convectional Rainfall
2. Orographic Rainfall
3. Cyclonic Rainfall

10.5 Distribution of Precipitation

10.2 Humidity

1. Types of Humidity
2. Absolute Humidity
3. Specific Humidity
4. Relative Humidity

10.3 Fog

1. Classification of Fog
2. Fog Dissipation Process
3. Distribution of fog

10.4 Clouds:

1. Classification of Clouds: high, Middle and Low
2. Types of clouds
   1. Cirrus
   1. Cumulus
   1. Stratus
   1. Altus
   1. Nimbus
3. Family of Clouds
4. Significance and Distribution

11. Weather and Climate

12. Climatic Classification:

              12.1 Empirical Classification

12.2 Genetic Classification

12.3 Koppen’s classification of world climate

12.4 Thornthwaite’s classification of world climate

12.5 Trewartha’s classification of world climate

13. Hydrological cycle

13.1 Land and sea moisture exchange cycle

13.2 Latitudinal Heat and Moisture exchange cycle

13.3 Impact of human beings on Hydrological cycle

14. Global climatic change, and role and response of man in climatic changes

15. Applied climatology and Urban climate.

15.1 Three Functional Areas of Applied Climatology

15.2 Evolution of Applied Climatology

15.3 Urban climate and heat island phenomena

1. Urban Climate
2. Changes in Insolation
3. Changes in Precipitation
4. Increased Frequency and Intensity of extreme events

UNIT III. Oceanography

1. Ocean floor Mapping

1.1 Techniques used to map ocean floor: Direct and Indirect

1. Bathymetry Techniques
   1. Direct Method
   1. SONAR Technology
   1. GIS Systems

1.2 Hypsographic curve or Hypsometric curve

2. Bottom topography of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans

2.1 Marine Morphology and Marine Province

2.2 Features of bottom topography of oceans

1. Continental Shelves
2. Continental Slopes
3. Continental Rise
4. Deep ocean basins
   1. Abyssal Plains
   1. Mid-Oceanic Ridges
   1. Oceanic Deeps and Trenches
   1. Banks and Shoals

2.3 Bottom Topography of Oceans

1. Atlantic Ocean
2. Pacific Ocean
3. Indian Ocean

3. Temperature and salinity of the oceans

3.1 Temperature of ocean:

1. Significance of study of Oceanic Temperature
2. Factors Responsible for Distribution of Temperature
   1. Heating
   1. Cooling
3. Distribution of Ocean Temperature
   1. Horizontal Distribution
   1. Vertical Distribution
4. Range and Variation of Temperature

3.2 Temperature-Salinity (TS) curve

4. Heat and salt budgets,

              4.1 Heat Budget of Ocean

4.2 Salinity of Ocean

1. Significance of Salinity,
2. Origin of Salts in sea
3. Factors controlling salinity
4. Distribution of Salinity
   1. Horizontal Distribution
   1. Vertical Distribution
   1. Isohaline map of World
      1. Atlantic Ocean
      1. Pacific Ocean
      1. Indian Ocean
   1. Regional Seas or Partially Enclosed Seas
      1. Atlantic Ocean
      1. Pacific Ocean
      1. Indian Ocean

4.3 Salt budget

1. Sources of Salt Addition
2. Sources of Salt Extraction
3. Impact of global warming on Salt Budget

5. Ocean deposits

5.1 Classification of oceanic deposits:

1. Genetic Classification
   1. Lithogenous/Terrigenous Deposits
   1. Biogenous/ Organic Deosits
   1. Red Caly
   1. Hydrogenous Deposits
   1. Cosmogenous Deposits
2. Geographical Classification of Ocean Deposits
   1. Terrigenous deposits
   1. Pelagic Deposits

5.2 Marine Biotic Provinces

5.3 Benthic Realm

6. Waves, currents and tides

6.1 Origin of currents, waves and tides

6.2 Ocean Currents:

1. Classification of Ocean Currents
   1. Warm and Cold
   1. Surface and Deep
2. Origin of Ocean Currents
3. Ekman Spiral and Pumping/Transport
4. Climatic classification of Surface Ocean Currents
5. Types of Ocean Currents
6. Distribution of Surface Ocean Currents
   1. Atlantic Ocean
   1. Pacific Ocean
   1. Indian Ocean

6.3 Deep ocean currents and water masses

1. Water Masses
2. Source Regions
3. Intermediate water Masses

6.4 Thermo-haline circulations

1. Meaning and Significance

6.5 Tracing of water masses

6.6 Oceanic waves:

1. Origin of Oceanic Waves
2. Types and Classification
   1. On the basis of Producing Force
   1. On the basis of Resisting Force
   1. On the basis of Nature of Waves
3. Factors controlling wave formation
4. Wind Generated Waves
   1. Capillary Wave Stages
   1. Gravity Wave Stage
   1. Swell Wave Stage
   1. Surf Wave Stage
5. Long Shore currents
6. Undertow and Rip Currents
7. Storm Surge

6.7 Tides/Tidal Waves

1. Types of Tides
2. Related theories of Tide formation
   1. Newton’s Wquilibrium Theory
   1. Dynamic Theory of Laplace
   1. Progressive Wave Theory – William Whewell
   1. Standstill Theory of Harris
3. Variability in Tidal waves
   1. Spring Tides and Neap Tides
   1. Perigean and Apogean Tides
   1. Equatorial and Tropical Tides

7. Marine resources

8. Biotic, mineral and energy resources

8.1 Types of marine resources

8.2 World distribution of Marine Resources

9. Coral reefs coral bleaching;

9.1 Coral Reefs

1. Essential Conditions for Coral Reef Formation
2. Types of coral reefs

9.2 Theories on coral reefs formation:

1. Subsidence Theory of Darwin
2. Standstill Theory of Murray
3. Glacial Control Theory of Daly
4. Idea of Davis

9.3 Coral Bleaching:

1. Causes of coral bleaching
2. Extent of coral bleaching

9.4 Conservation of Coral Reefs

9.5 Mesophotic Coral Ecosystem

10. Sea-level changes

10.1 Eustatic Changes

1. By Climatic or Glacial Changes
2. Tectonic factor

10.2 Isocratic Changes

11. Law of the sea

11.1 UNCLOS

1. Definition of State
2. Division of Zones
3. International Sea Bed Authority
4. Law of the Seas and Marine Pollution
5. Management of Resources of Sea

12. Marine pollution.

12.1 Reasons, causes and factors of pollution

UNIT IV. Biogeography

1. Genesis of soils

1.1 Genesis of Soil

1.2 Factors influencing soil formation

1. Climate
2. Biotic Factor
3. Parent Rock
4. Topography
5. Time

1.3 Pedogenic Regime

1. Weathering
   1. Physical/Mechanical
   1. Chemical
   1. Biological
2. Erosion
3. Translocation
   1. Leaching
   1. Eluviation
   1. Illuviation
   1. Calcification
   1. Salinization/ Alkalization
4. Organic Changes
5. Podzolization/Cheluviation
6. Gleying
7. Desilication/Laterization
8. Horizonation

2. Classification and distribution of soils

2.1 Marbut Classification and distribution

1. Zonal
2. Azonal
3. Intrazonal

2.2 USDA Classification and Distribution

1. Entisols
2. Invertisols
3. Aridisols
4. Mollisols
5. Inceptisols
6. Spodosols
7. Alfisols
8. Ultisols
9. Oxisols
10. Histosols

3. Soil profile

3.1 Types of soil profile

3.2 Soil Texure

3.3 pH Value of Soil

4. Soil erosion, degradation and conservation

4.1Factors causing soil erosion and degradation:

1. Natural Factors
2. Anthropogenic Factors

4.2 Conservation practices

5. Factors influencing world distribution of plants and animals

5.1 Systematic Biogeography

1. Factors controlling distribution of Plants and Animals
   1. Environmental Factors
   1. Environmental Laws

5.2 Non-Zonal Environmental Factors

5.3 Biological factors

1. Symbiosis
   1. Commensalism
   1. Photo Co-operation
   1. Mutualism
2. Competition
   1. Plant-Plant
   1. Animal-Animal
   1. Plant-Animal

5.4Factors causing Disturbance in distribution of plants and animals

1. Physical Disturbance
2. Biological Disturbance
3. Climate Change

5.4 Biomes: Types and distribution

1. Classification of Biomes
   1. Terrestrial Biomes
      1. Forest Biomes
      1. Grassland Biomes
      1. Shurb Biomes
      1. Cold Desert Biomes
      1. Man Made Biomes
   1. Aquatic Biomes
      1. Marine Biomes
      1. Fresh Water Biomes
2. Biological Biogeography Phenomena
   1. Speciation  Phenomena
      1. Reasons for Speciation
   1. Extinction Phenomena
      1. Local Extinction
      1. Global Extinction
      1. Mass Extinction
      1. Governing factors for extinction
         1. Biotic factors
         1. Biotic interactions
         1. Evolutionary factors
         1. Abiotic Factors
   1. Dispersal Phenomena

5.5 Factors Affecting Distribution of Species

1. Distance
2. Climate
3. Dispersal
4. Reuniting of Landmass
5. Phenomena of Extinction

5.6 Distribution of Species:

1. Cosmopolitan Distribution
2. Endemism

5.5 Biogeographic regions of the world

5.6 Faunistic Regions

1. Australia
2. Neo-Tropical
3. Ethiopian
4. Oriental
5. Nearctic and Palearctic

5.7 Floristic Regions

1. Palaearctic Region
2. Nearctic Region
3. Oriental Region
4. Ethiopian Region
5. Australian Region
6. Neotropic Region

6. Problems of deforestation and conservation measures

7. Social forestry and agro-forestry

8. Wild life

9. Major gene pool centres

9.1 Importance and their global distribution

UNIT V. Environmental Geography

1. Principle ecology

1.1 Principle of Uniformitarianism

1.2 Principle of Ecological studies

1.3 Principle of Mutual reaction

1.4 Principle of energy

1.5 Principle of Productivity

1.6 Principle of biogeochemical cycle

1.7 Principle of Natural Selection

1.8Principle of Mutation

1.9 Principle of Succession

1.10 Principle of homeostacy

1.11 Principle of environmental change and disruption of ecosystem

2. Human ecological adaptations;

2.1 Biological Adaptations

1. Physiological Adaptations
2. Anatomical Adaptations

2.2 Cultural Adaptations

1. Humans in Harmony to Nature
2. Humans as Determined by Nature
3. Humans as Modifiers of Nature

2.3 Spatial Variability in Cultural Adaptations

3. Influence of man on ecology and environment;

3.1 Anthropocene

1. Viewpoints on rise of Ecological Footprint
   1. Malthusian View
   1. Cornucopians View
   1. Marxist View
      1. Commodification and Consumer Culture
2. Deforestation
   1. Population
   1. Technology
   1. Affluence

3.2 Degradation of forests

1. Natural and Man-Made Hazards of Forest
   1. Fires
   1. Commodification

3.3 Grassland Impacted by Humans

3.4 Impact of Humans on Deserts

3.5 Impact of Climate Change

4. Global and regional ecological changes and imbalances

4.1 Changes in Atmosphere

4.2 Changes in Hydrosphere

4.3 Changes in Biosphere

5. Ecosystem their management and conservation

6. Environmental degradation, management and conservation

6.1 Hazards and Disasters management

6.2 Sea level changes

6.3 Need for environmental management

6.4 Environmental conservation

7. Biodiversity and sustainable development

8. Environmental policy

8.1 Principle of Sustainability

8.2 Polluters pay principle

8.3 Precautionary principle

8.4 Participation principle

8.5 Equity principle

8.6 Human rights principle

9. Environmental hazards and remedial measures;

9.1 Environmental Hazards and disaster management

10. Environmental education and legislation.

10.1 Formal and Informal Education

10.2 Environmental Laws, Conventions and Protocols

PART 2: HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

UNIT 1: PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

1.           THE FIRST FOUNDATION

1. Introduction to Human geography

1.1        Ancient Classical Geography

1. Contribution of the Greeks in Geography
   1. Homer
   1. Thales
   1. Anaximander
   1. Hecataeus
   1. Herodotus
   1. Plato
   1. Aristotle
   1. Inductive and Deductive Method
2. Contribution of the Romans in Geography
   1. Strabo
   1. Ptolemy

1.2        Medieval Geography and Renaissance

1. Contributions of Arab Geographers
   1. Al-Masudi
   1. Al-Biruni
   1. Ibn-Khaldum

1.3        Foundation of Scientific Geography

1. Contribution of Eratosthenes
2. Contribution of Bernhardus Varenius
3. Further division of General Geography by Verenius
4. Contribution of Immanuel Kant

1.4        Classical Period of Modern Geography

1. Varenius
2. Immunal Kant
3. Pre-Modern Period
   1. Role of Alexander Von Humboldt
   1. Contribution of Carl Ritter
4. Modern Period
   1. German School
   1. French School
   1. British School of Thought
   1. American School of Thought
   1. Russian School of Thought
5. Contributions of Vidal De La Blache
6. Contributions of John Mackinder, Ellen Churchill Semple
7. Impact on Geomorphology
8. Impact on Landschaft
9. Impact on Human Geography
10. Impact on Political Geography
11. Impact on Cultural Landscape

1.5        Dualism and Dichotomies

1. General Geography vs Regional Geography
2. History of General versus Regional geography
3. Geography as a Chorographic or chorologic science
4. Determinism vs Possibilism
5. Physical Geography vs Human Geography
6. Dichotomy between Functional and Formal Geography

1.6        Quantitative Revolution in Geography

1. Assumptions of Quantitative Revolution
2. Historical Perspective of QR
3. Paradigms In Geography
4. Kuhn’s Paradigm
5. Pre-paradigmatic stage    
6. Professionalization
7. Paradigm Phase    
8. Temporary Dark Phase
9. Areal Differentiation
10. Schaefer – Hartshorne Debate
11. Criticism

1.7        Exceptionalism in Geography

1. Spatial Analysis
2. Locational Analysis

1.8        Positivism in Geography        

1. Behaviouralism
   1. The objectives of behavioural approach
   1. Time geography           
   1. Constraints

1.9        Radicalism in Geography

1. Structuralism
2. Realism
3. Marxist Geography
4. Functionalism
5. Environmentalism
   1. Eco-Centric Ideas
      1. Gianism
      1. Communists
   1. Techno-centric Ideas
      1. Environment Managers
      1. Cornucopians

1.10      The Welfare Geography Approach

1. Development of Welfare Approach
   1. David M Smith
   1. Richard Morrill

1.11      Idealism in Geography

1. Pragmatism is Geography
2. The major attributes of pragmatism

UNIT 2: ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

2.           WORLD ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: MEASUREMENT AND PROBLEMS

2.1        Paradigms in measuring development

2.2        Measurement and Related Problems

2.3        Factors affecting Economic Development

2.4        Regional Disparities

2.5        Indexes that are gaining prominence

3.           WORLD RESOURCES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION

3.1        Distribution of Natural Resources

1. Classification of Natural Resources
2. Non-Renewable Energy resources
3. Extent of Oil Bearing Strata in India & World
4. OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
5. Shale Gas Reserves in India & World
   1. Advantages
   1. Disadvantages
   1. Coalbed Methane
6. Coal
   1. Distribution of Coal across the World
   1. Distribution of Coal in India
   1. Gondwana Coal
   1. Tertiary Coal
7. Uranium:
   1. Uranium reserves in India & World
8. Thorium – Distribution in world and India

3.2        Renewable Energy resources

1. Solar Energy:
   1. Solar Power Projects in India
2. Wind Energy

 3.3       Mineral Resources – World distribution along with India

1. The North-Eastern Peninsular Belt
2. Important Minerals of India
3. Iron Ore
4. Manganese
5. Chromite
6. Copper      
7. Nickel
8. Bauxite      
9. Tungsten
10. Gold
11. Non- Metallic Minerals
12. Diamonds

4.           ENERGY CRISIS

4.1        Causes of Global Energy Crisis

4.2        Effects of the Global Energy Crisis

4.3        Solutions to Global Energy Crisis

4.4        Hubbert’s Curve or Hubbert’s Peak

5.           CONCEPT OF LIMITS TO GROWTH

1. Understanding limits to growth
2. Criticism of Limits to Growth
3. Conclusion

6.           WORLD AGRICULTURE: TYPOLOGY OF AGRICULTURAL REGIONS

1. The Pattern of World Agriculture
   1. Factors Influencing Agriculture
   1. Problems of Delimitation and Classification

6.1        Whittlesey World Agricultural Systems/Region

7.           AGRICULTURAL INPUTS AND PRODUCTIVITY

• Agricultural Inputs
  • Chemical Fertilizers
  • Pesticides

7.2        Agricultural Productivity

1. State of Agricultural Productivity in India

7.3        Von Thunen’s Model of Agriculture Location

1. Assumptions:
2. Critical Analysis:

 8.          FOOD SECURITY          

8.1        Duration of Food Insecurity

8.2        The Severity of Food Insecurity

8.3        Hunger, Malnutrition and Poverty

8.4        FAO Policy Priorities for Food Security

8.5        Food and the SDGs

8.6        Global Report on Food Crisis 2022

8.7        The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World – 2022

8.8        Nutrition and Food Security in India

8.9        Nutrition and Food Security: The Challenge

8.10      Government of India Programmes and Initiatives

9.           THE GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

1. GHI based on four indicators
2. Spatial variation in South Asian region India specifically
3. The reasons behind poor performance of India
4. Way forward to improve the situation of poor performance in hunger index and hunger

10.        FAMINES

10.1      Why do famines happen?

10.2      Famines by World Region

10.3      Malthus View on Famines

10.4      Effects of Famine

10.5      Preventing and Reducing the Effects of Famine

10.5      Famines in India (Distribution Effects & Solutions)

11.        WORLD INDUSTRIES: LOCATIONAL PATTERNS AND PROBLEMS

1. Webber’s Theory of Location of Industries

11.1      Application of Webber’s Theory

1. Deviation in Industrial Location due to Labor and Agglomeration Factors

11.2      Criticism of Weber’s Theory

1. World Trade Patterns

11.3      Shifting Patterns of Trade

11.4      Changes in the Global Economy         

11.5      Current Trends in World Trade

UNIT 3: POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

12.        POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND GROWTH

12.1      Distribution of Population Size

12.2      Factors Responsible for Uneven Distribution of Population

1. Physical Factors:
2. Socio-Economic Factors:

12.3      World Patterns of Distribution of Population

1. On the Basis of Habitability:
2. On the Basis of Hemisphere:
3. On the Basis of Continents and Countries:

12.4      Indian Patterns of Distribution of Population

13.        GROWTH OF POPULATION

13.1      History of growth of population

13.2      Growth Differentials

14.        THEORIES OF POPULATION GROWTH

14.1      Malthusian Theory of Population

1. Assumptions
2. Theory       
3. Criticism
4. Conclusion

14.2      Marxism

14.3      Neo-Marxian Theory

15.        DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL

15.1      Different stages; India’s position

15.2      Critical evaluation

16.        DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES (PAPER-I)

a.           Factors affecting population change

16.1      Determinants of fertility

16.2      Determinants of Mortality     

16.3      World Pattern of Fertility

16.4      Indian Pattern of Fertility

16.5      World pattern of Mortality

16.6      Indian Mortality Scenario

17.        MIGRATION (PAPER I+II)

17.1      Types of migration (Paper II)

1. Internal Migration
2. International Migration
3. Theories of Migration
   1. Ranenstein’s Model
   1. Lee’s Theory
   1. Zipf’s Hypothesis

17.2      Causes of Migration

1. Technology
2. Economic Causes
3. Overpopulation
4. Social and Religious Causes
5. Political Causes
6. Technological
7. Wars
8. Government Policy
9. Climate Induces Migration

17.3      Consequences of Migration

18.        CONCEPT OF OVER, UNDER AND OPTIMUM POPULATION

18.1      Concept of Over Population

18.2      Causes of Over Population:

18.3      Consequence of Over Population:-

1. Solutions to Overpopulation

18.4      Concept of Under Population

18.5      Causes of Under Population

18.6      Consequences of Under Population

1. Solution of Under Population

18.7      Optimum Population

• Statement of the Theory
• Optimum Population
• Assumptions
• Diagrammatic Representation of the Theory

19.        WORLD POPULATION PROBLEMS AND POLICIES

19.1      Population Problems of Developing Countries

19.2      Population Problems of Developed Countries

19.3      World Population Policies

19.4      India’s Population Policies

a.           Evolution of Family Welfare Programme and Five Year Plans

19.5      Contraceptive Choices

1. COPPER-T

19.6      TERMINAL METHODS

• TUBECTOMY
• VASECTOMY

19.7      National Population Policy, 2000

20.        SOCIAL WELL-BEING AND QUALITY OF LIFE

20.1      Worldview

20.2      Position of India

21.        POPULATION AS A SOCIAL CAPITAL

a.           Context

21.1      Varieties of social capital

21.1      Why Social Capital has dwindled over the past years

21.2      Advantages of Social Capital

21.3      How to Promote Population as a social Capital

21.4      Negative Impact

22.        HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF INDIAN SOCIETY          125

22.1      Sources of Diversity in India

22.2      Racial Diversity

1. Classification Haddon
2. Classification of J.H. Hutton
3. Classification of Dr. B.S. Guha

22.3      Linguistic Diversity

22.4      Ethnic Diversity

22.4      Religious Diversity

23.        RELIGIOUS MINORITIES

23.1      Geographic spread of minorities in India

23.2      Socio-economic status of minorities in India

24.        TRIBES IN INDIA

24.1      Distinctive Characteristics of the Tribes in India

24.2      Major Tribes in India

1. Bhil
2. Munda
3. Baiga
4. KOKNA
5. Madia
6. Santhal
7. KA Thakar
8. Warli
9. Koli Dhor
10. Birhor

24.3      Particularly vulnerable tribal groups

1. About the particular vulnerable tribal groups
2. The criteria followed for determination of PVTGs
3. Statewise Spatial variation of PVTGs in India

24.4      List of PVTGs in India

1. Issues and Challenges faced by particular vulnerable tribal groups.

24.5      Case studies

1. At the development level.

24.6      Socio-Economic Conditions of Tribals in India

24.7      Xaxa Report

25.        CULTURAL REGIONS

25.1      Major Cultural Regions in India

25.2      Major Cultural Regions of the World

1. India Population: Growth and Distribution

• India becoming the Most Populated country of the World: Prospects & Challenges

2. Composition of Population

• TFR reaching below replacement levels for India: Significance and Challenges
• Social Capital: Importance, Significance and Impact on Development

3. Population: Problems and Policies

• Indian Demography: Unhealthy and Under-Skilled
• Quality Of Life and Standard Of Living in India.
• Ageing global population: Boon for India.

4. Migration in India

• Navigating the Complexities of Migration in India
• The Mega Challenge of Rural-Urban Migration in India
• Forced Migration in India
• Assimilation of migrants in host population: International scenario and conflicts.
• Recent Trend of Migration: Mass Migration and Impact on Urban and Rural Economy

UNIT 4: SETTLEMENT GEOGRAPHY

26.        TYPES AND PATTERNS OF RURAL SETTLEMENT

26.1      Factors affecting Rural Settlement

1. Water Supply
2. Land
3. Upland      
4. Building Material
5. Defence
6. Planned Settlements

26.2      Classification of Rural Settlements

1. Compact or Nucleated Settlements
2. Semi-Compact or Semi-Nucleated Settlements
3. Dispersed Settlements

26.3      Functions of Rural Settlements

26.4      Patterns of Rural settlement

26.5      Morphology of Rural Settlements

27.        ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN RURAL SETTLEMENT

27.1      Widespread Environmental Problems

1. Domestic Waste
2. Forest cover
3. Land Use and Land Tenure
4. Human Habitat and Infrastructure

27.2      Common Environmental Concerns

1. Soil Loss
2. Water Shortage
3. Solid Waste Disposal
4. Toxic Chemicals
5. Nature Conservation

28.        HIERARCHY OF URBAN SETTLEMENT

29.        CONCEPT OF RANK SIZE RULE AND PRIMATE CITIES

29.1      Rank Size Rule

1. Rank Size Rule – G.K. Zipf
2. Its applicability in India
3. Criticism

29.2      Primate City

1. Characteristics of primate cities as per Mark Jefferson and Linsky
2. Applicability in present world

30.        FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS

30.1      Classification of towns by different scholars

30.2      Functional classification of Indian Towns

31.        RURAL-URBAN FRINGE

a.           Complex Pattern of Transition in R-U Fringe

31.1      Characteristics of R-U Fringe

31.2      Delimitation of the R-U Fringe

32.        SATELLITE TOWN

33.        PROBLEMS AND REMEDIES OF URBANIZATION

33.1      Problems and issues in urbanization

33.2      Solutions to Urbanization

34.        CLASSIFICATION OF CITIES

34.1      Classification by Age

34.2      Classification by functions

34.3      Functional classification of Indian Cities

34.4      Mitra’s Classification of Indian Cities

34.5      Classification by M. Aurousseau

34.6      Classificatory Scheme of Chauncy D. Harris

35.        MORPHOLOGY OF URBAN AREAS

35.1      Factors Affecting Morphology of Urban Settlements

35.2      The Dynamics of Urban Morphology

1. The Central Business District
2. Retail, Wholesale and Commercial Area
3. Residential Areas
4. Industrial Areas

36.        CENTRAL PLACE THEORY – CHRISTALLER

1. Introduction

36.1      Assumptions

36.2      Major Principles

1. Centrality
2. Complementary areas
3. Threshold population
4. The Range of goods
5. The pattern of Nesting
6. K=3, Marketing Principle
7. K=4, Transport Principle
8. K=7, Administrative Principle

36.3      Criticism

37.        CENTRAL PLACE THEORY BY AUGUST LOSCH

37.1      Introduction

1. Assumptions
2. Theory
3. Criticism

38.        CONURBATION

38.1      Conurbation characteristics

38.2      Conurbation types

38.3      Examples of Conurbation

39.        URBAN SPRAWL AND AGGLOMERATION

39.1      Urban Sprawl

39.2      Agglomeration

40.        SLUMS & ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS

40.1      Characteristics of the Slums

40.2      Dharavi Slum: A Case Study

40.3 Contemporary Issues

5. Urbanization and Settlement: Planning, Patterns and Problems

5.1 World and India Urbanization

• Global South Water-Sensitive Cities: Prospects and Challenges
• Urbanization in India: Growth, Significances and Challenges

India’s Rate of Urbanization (2010 – 2021, %)

• Urbanization Rate in India
• Urban Population of India
• Recent Trends Impacting Urbanization

5.2 Urban Planning

• Geoinformatics and  urban planning: Integrated solution
• Smart cities: Making urbanization digital in India

5.3 Problems with Urbanization:

5.3.1 Urban Floods: Climate Change and Recent Trends

5.3.2 Urban Cities: Increasing Pollution and Poor Waste Management

5.3.3 Slums in urban areas; Issues and Challenges

5.3.4 India’s megacities aren’t prepared for a wave of climate migrants

15. ECONOMIC AND HUMAN IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT

15.1 Mining Impact on Environment

15.2 Mountain Ecosystem and Tourism

15.3 Industries Development and Environmental Degradation in India

15.4 Agricultural impact on Environment

UNIT 5: REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY

41.        CONCEPT OF REGION

41.1      Attributes of Region

41.2      Structure of Region

41.3      Classification of Regions

42.        GROWTH CENTRES AND GROWTH POLES

1. Evaluation

42.1      Growth centre

1. Application of the Concept of Growth Centres

43.        REGIONAL IMBALANCE

43.1      Characteristics of lagging regions

43.2      Regional Development Policies and Tradeoffs

1. Fiscal incentives 
2. Public investment 
3. Facilitating labor mobility
4. Enhancing agency 

43.3      Regional Imbalance In India

44.        REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

44.1      Introduction

44.2      Historical Background

1. The Goals of Five Year Plans
2. Regional Disparities in the Post Reform Period

44.3      Regional Policy for Urban Growth

1. Metropolitan regional planning
2. Smart city: concept of development

45.        INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

45.1      Objective of IRDP

1. Subsidies provided under IRDP

45.2      Effectiveness of IRDP

46.        COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT & WATER MANAGEMENT (CAD&WM) PROGRAMME

46.1      Aims & Objectives

46.2      Programme Components

1. Construction of Field channel
2. Reclamation of Waterlogged and Saline Lands
3. Farmers Training
4. Crop Demonstration
5. Correction of System Deficiencies

47.        PLANNING FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF BACKWARD DISTRICTS        

47.1      Backward Area Development

47.2      Drought prone areas and desert area development

47.3      The Hill Area Development Programme

47.4      Border Area Development Programme

48.        DEVELOPMENT OF ISLANDS IN INDIA

48.1      Need for development of Islands in India; their importance

48.2      Andaman and Nicobar Islands

48.3      Lakshadweep Islands

48.4      Sagar Island

49.        MODEL, THEORIES & LAWS IN HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

49.1      System Analysis of Geography

1. General System Theory
2. Merits of Abstract Construal of Systems
3. Structure of a System
4. Elements of a System
5. Links or Relationships
6. System approach to landform analysis

49.2      Rostov’s model of stages of growth

1. Criticisms of Rostov’s Model

49.3      Heartland Theory of Mackinder

1. Mackinder then conceptualized his theory on following premises
2. Modified concept of ‘Midland Basin’, 1943

49.4      Spykman’sRimland Theory

1. Boundaries and Frontiers
2. Boundary and Frontier—A Comparison

49.5      Classification of international boundaries

1. Genetic Classification
2. Morphological Classification
3. Mountain Boundaries
4. Rivers as international boundaries

PAPER II: INDIAN  GEOGRAPHY

Unit I:  Physical Settings

1.1 Structure and relief

1. The Archean Rock system
2. The Purana Rock System
3. The Dravidian Rock system
4. Aryan Rock system

1.1        Land of Diversities

1.2        Unity in Diversity

2.           Space relationship of India with neighboring countries

3. Physiographic regions

3.1        Indian Physiography

1. The Himalayan Mountain
2. Significance of Himalayas for India
3. The Northern Plains
4. The Peninsular Plateau
5. Coastline of India – Indian Coastline
6. Indian Islands

4.           Mechanism of Indian monsoons and rainfall patterns

4.1        Seasons in India

4.2        Monsoon; its theories and impact of Monsoon

4.3        Factors Influencing Indian Climate

5.           Drainage system and watersheds

5.1        Himalayan River System

5.2        Peninsular River System or Peninsular Drainage

5.3        East Flowing Peninsular Rivers

5.4        West Flowing Rivers

6.           CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA

6.1        Features of Indian Climate

6.2        Different Climatic Regions/Zones of India

7.           NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA

7.1        Types & Characteristics of Natural Vegetation in India

8.           SOIL DEGRADATION -SOIL EROSION – DESERTIFICATION

8.1        Soil Profile and Soil Horizon

8.2        Types of soils & Distribution

8.3        Soil Conservation – Various Methods

9. Tropical cyclones and western disturbances

• Development of Cyclones in India
• Western Disturbances: Origin and Impact

10. Floods and droughts

• Floods in India
• Droughts in India

Unit II: Resources:

1. Land, surface and ground water, energy, minerals, biotic and marine resources,
2. Land Resources And It’s Utilization Pattern
3. Energy Resources
4. Types of Energy Resources in India
5. Higher cost of extraction
6. Mineral Resources
7. Important minerals of India
8. Metallic Minerals
9. Non- Metallic Minerals
10. Problems faced by Mineral Resources
11. Conservation of Mineral Resources

2. Forest and wildlife resources and their conservation

1. Wildlife Resources And Conservation
2. Wildlife Diversity in India
3. Threats posed to them
4. Conservation Strategy for Wildlife Resources

3. Energy crisis

1. Energy variation
2. Geopolitics on Energy

Unit III: Agriculture: 

1. Infrastructure: irrigation, seeds, fertilizers, power; Institutional factors; land holdings, land tenure and land reforms;
2. Infrastructure –Irrigation, Seeds, Fertilizers and Power
3. Institutional -Land holding, Land tenure, Land reforms
4. LAND REFORMS IN INDIA
5. Tenancy Reforms
6. Objectives of Land Reforms
7. Measures of Land Reforms
8. Cropping pattern, agricultural productivity, agricultural intensity, crop combination, land capability;
9. Cropping pattern in India
10. Effects of this Pattern on the dependent resources and productivity
11. Crops combinations
12. Advantages of crop combination
13. Suitable span of crop combination
14. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY
    1. Measures to Raise Productivity
15. Diversification of Agriculture
16. Post-harvest activities
17. Why is PDS important
18. Types of farming in India
19. Cropping Seasons of India
20. Cropping Pattern
21. Sustainable Agriculture
22. Micro Irrigation (MI)
23. North East Angle in Agriculture   
24. Agro and social-forestry
25. Agroforestry
26. Social Forestry
27. Green revolution and its socio-economic and ecological implications
28. Green Revolution
29. Evergreen Revolution for Sustainable Livelihood
30. Organic Farming

• Significance of dry farming
  • Watershed Management
  • Inputs in Agriculture
• Livestock resources and white revolution;
• Aquaculture; Sericulture, Agriculture and poultry;
• Agricultural regionalisation;
• Agro-climatic zones;
• Agroecological regions.

Unit IV: Industry: 

1. Evolution of industries
2. Weber’s Industrial Location Model
3. Types of Industries
4. Locational factors of cotton, jute, textile, iron and steel, aluminum, fertiliser, paper, chemical and pharmaceutical, automobile, cottage, and ago-based industries
   1. Factors responsible for location of industries
   1. Non-Geographical Factors
   1. Secondary Activities
   1. Localization of industry
5. Industrial houses and complexes including public sector undertakings
6. Industrial regionalisation
7. New industrial policy
8. Multinationals and liberalisation
9. Special Economic Zones
   1. Objective behind formation of SEZ
   1. Economic costs of SEZ
   1. Analysis of SEZ; reasons for lack of effectiveness of the policy
   1. Way Forward
10. Tourism including ecotourism.
    1. RURAL TOURISM
11. Different Schemes
12. Impact of Rural Tourism          
13. National Tourism Policy
14. Community Based Tourism for North East
15. Social costs of SEZ
16. Challenges

Unit V: Transport, Communication, and Trade: 

1. Road, railway, waterway, airway, and pipeline networks and their complementary roles in regional development;
2. Growing importance of ports on national and foreign trade;
3. Trade balance;
4. Trade Policy;
5. Export processing zones;
6. Developments in communication and information technology and their impacts on economy and society;
7. Indian space programme.
   1. Remote Sensing and Its Application
   1. Regional Navigation and its Application

Unit VI: Cultural Setting: 

1. Historical Perspective of Indian Society
2.  Racial linguistic and ethnic diversities; religious minorities
3. Major tribes, tribal areas, and their problems
4.  Cultural regions
5. Growth, distribution, and density of population;
6. Demographic attributes: sex-ratio, age structure, literacy rate, work-force, dependency ratio, longevity
7. migration (inter-regional, intraregional and international) and associated problems;
8. Population problems and policies
9. Health indicators.

Unit VII: Settlements: 

1. Types, patterns, and morphology of rural settlements
2. Urban developments
3. Morphology of Indian cities
4. Functional classification of Indian cities
5. Conurbations and metropolitan regions
6. Urban sprawl
7.  Slums and associated problems
8. Town planning
9. Problems of urbanisation and remedies.

Unit VIII: Regional Development and Planning: 

1. Experience of regional planning in India
2. Five Year Plans;
3. Integrated rural development programmes;
4. Panchayati Raj and decentralised planning;
5. Command area development;
6. Watershed management;
7. Planning for backward area, desert, drought-prone, hill tribal area development;
8. Multi-level planning;
9. Regional planning and development of island territories.

Unit IX: Political Aspects: 

1. Geographical basis of Indian federalism; State reorganization
   1. Centrifugal forces & the Centripetal forces
   1. Inherent and Genetic causes
   1. Political federalism in India
2. Emergence of new states
   1. Factors Influencing Regional Consciousness in India
3. Regional consciousness and inter-state issues
   1. Leading Inter-State Disputes of India
   1. Cross Border Terrorism
   1. India-Pakistan Border
   1. India-Bangladesh Border
   1. Indo-China Border
   1. India-Nepal Border
   1. India-Bhutan Border
   1. Indo-Myanmar Border
4. International boundary of India and related issues
   1. Borders with Nepal
   1. India Bhutan
   1. India Pakistan Border
   1. The Siachin Glaciar Dispute
   1. India Bangladesh Border
   1. India Myanmar border
   1. India Sri Lanka boundary
5. Cross-border terrorism
   1. Strategies for effective border management in India
   1. Linkages of organized crime with terrorism
6. India’s role in world affairs
7. Geopolitics of South Asia and Indian Ocean realm.

Unit X: CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

1. Landslides, Earthquake, Tsunami, Drought ,Epidemics
2. Issues relating to Environmental Pollution
3. Land Use Change
4. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
5. Population Explosion and Food Security
6. Environmental Degradation
7. Deforestation
8. Desertification
9. Regional Disparities in Economic Development
10. Concept of Sustainable Growth and Development
11. Environmentalism
12. River Interlinking/Inter-Basin Transfer