1.b. Referring to the location and physical formation of karewas, highlight their economic significance. 10 2025

Karewas: Physical Formation, Location, and Economic Significance

Karewas represent distinctive lacustrine deposits uniquely concentrated in the Kashmir Valley, manifesting remarkable economic importance through agricultural and horticultural productivity while simultaneously facing unprecedented threats from urbanization and extractive industries. Their economic significance derives directly from specific geomorphic properties acquired through millions of years of geological formation.

Physical Formation: Geological Genesis and Chronology

Location and Spatial Distribution

Karewas are exclusively found in two principal locations within Jammu and Kashmir: primarily the Kashmir Valley (an intermontane basin measuring approximately 140 kilometers long and 40 kilometers wide, oriented northwest-southeast between the Pir Panjal Range to the southwest and the Great Himalayas to the northeast) and secondarily the Bhadarwah Valley in Jammu Division. The karewa deposits occupy approximately 2,500 square kilometers of the Kashmir Valley floor, comprising thickly stratified sequences ranging from 1,300 to 18,000 meters in cumulative depth. These elevated table-land formations create a distinctive plateau-like topography above the alluvial plains of the Jhelum River and its tributaries, particularly concentrated west of the Jhelum and in southwestern portions of the basin.

Pleistocene Lacustrine Formation Mechanism

Karewas formed through a complex geomorphic process initiated during the Pleistocene epoch (2.6 million to 11,700 years ago). During early Pleistocene times, the Kashmir Valley existed as a continuous water body—the “Kashmir Great Lake”—when tectonic uplift of the surrounding Pir Panjal Range blocked outflow drainage. Rather than permitting water escape, the rising mountains trapped moisture creating lacustrine (lake) environments within the intermontane basin. Sediments continuously flowed into this vast inland sea through tributary streams and glacial meltwater channels, accumulating in layers. The three-phase sediment stratification reflects distinct depositional environments:

Hirpur Formation (Pliocene-Early Pleistocene): Oldest lacustrine deposits marking initial sedimentation phases when the Kashmir Great Lake existed with maximum water extent. These lowermost layers, comprising clay and silt-rich sediments, preserve paleoclimatic records reflecting wet climatic conditions.

Nagum Formation (Middle-Upper Pleistocene): Intermediate deposits accumulating during continued lacustrine sedimentation as water levels fluctuated. Containing fossil assemblages, peat layers, and mammalian remains, these deposits yield radioactive carbon dating permitting paleoenvironmental reconstruction across 4.4 to 1.95 million years ago. Paleoclimatic analysis reveals southwestern monsoon dominance during this period, before mid-latitude westerly disturbances became climatically prevalent (1.95 Ma onwards to present).

Dilpur Formation (Upper Pleistocene-Holocene): Upper cap sequences comprising loess deposits (wind-blown silt) and alternating paleosol (ancient soil) layers formed during repeated cycles of dry periglacial conditions and humid interludes. The Dilpur Formation represents the final lacustrine phase when water gradually drained through the Baramulla Gorge—a natural drainage channel cut through the Pir Panjal Range permitting water escape—eventually emptying the Kashmir Great Lake completely. Once water drained, the lacustrine sediments remained as unconsolidated deposits of clay, silt, sand, gravel, lignite, peat, volcanic ash horizons, and fossils—the contemporary karewa formations.

Composition and Soil Properties

Karewas exhibit distinctive material composition reflecting their lacustrine genesis:

• Primary minerals: Silt-sized grains (40-60% composition), clay particles (20-35%), and sand fractions (15-25%) distributed across layers reflecting varying depositional energy conditions
• Secondary materials: Gravel, boulders, volcanic ash beds, lignite layers, and preserved fossil remains (extinct megafauna and paleovegetation)
• Critical physical characteristics: Exceptionally porous structure (particularly in Dilpur loess formations), high moisture retention capacity from clay-silt composition, and low bulk density reflecting unconsolidated depositional history
• Fertility attributes: Rich nutrient content from glacial weathering and organic paleosols; high organic matter in some layers; favorable cation exchange capacity supporting plant-available nutrient retention

Theoretical Framework: Soil Genesis and Geomorphic Process Models

The Polygenetic Soil Formation Model explains karewa fertility. Loess (wind-deposited silt in Dilpur Formation) undergoes pedogenic (soil-forming) processes between wind deposition cycles, creating paleosols—ancient soil horizons exhibiting weathering products (iron oxides, clay minerals) and organic accumulation. Multiple repetitions create paleosol-loess stratigraphic sequences recording paleoclimatic oscillations: periods when humid conditions permitted soil development alternating with arid phases permitting aeolian deposition. This cyclical formation generates inherently fertile soils accumulating weathering products and organic material across millennia—a process termed polygenesis requiring millions of years to complete.

The Fluvio-Glacial Lacustrine Deposition Model explains nutrient enrichment. Glacial meltwater streams flowing from Himalayan ice sheets transported finely ground rock flour (suspended silt and clay) alongside soluble minerals into the Kashmir Great Lake. As water velocity decreased entering lacustrine environments, dense particles settled as sediment while dissolved minerals remained in solution. Successive depositions accumulated these glacially-comminuted minerals creating geochemically enriched layers. Concurrently, organic productivity in the ancient lake (algae, aquatic plants, zooplankton) contributed organic matter, creating polyunsaturated paleosols when exposed to weathering. This dual enrichment—mineral and organic—explains karewa fertility exceeding surrounding metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

Economic Significance: Agricultural and Horticultural Functions

Primary Crop: Saffron (Crocus Sativus) Cultivation

Saffron cultivation represents the signature economic activity on karewas, generating profound importance for Kashmir’s regional economy. Kashmir produces approximately 90% of India’s saffron and ranks second globally after Iran in production quality. However, recent data reveals concerning production trends:

• Historical extent: Saffron cultivation occupied 5,707 hectares in 1996-97, generating 173.82 quintals (approximately 16 million tons annually)
• Contemporary contraction: By 2015-2016, cultivated area declined to 3,674 hectares (35.6% reduction), with production collapsing to 9.6 million tons annually—a 45% productivity decrease despite the same area
• Yield deterioration: Average productivity fell from 2.93 kg/hectare (1990s) to 2.61 kg/hectare (2015), creating per-hectare income compression even as global saffron prices remained elevated

Why Karewas Enable Saffron Cultivation

Saffron’s unique agronomic requirements perfectly align with karewa properties:

• Moisture balance: Saffron corms (underground stem bulbs) require dormancy lasting 6-7 months with limited moisture availability. Excessive moisture triggers fungal diseases (basal rot, fusarium) and corm rotting. Karewa’s high porosity and silt composition provide optimal moisture retention—sufficient to prevent complete desiccation during dormancy yet permitting excess drainage preventing waterlogging. This precise moisture-retention balance is critical; regular alluvial soils and clay-rich soils either retain excessive moisture or drain too rapidly
• Soil pH and nutrient availability: Loess-based paleosols exhibit slightly acidic to neutral pH (6.5-7.2) optimal for saffron. The weathered mineral composition provides bioavailable phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients (zinc, manganese, iron) essential for corm development without requiring heavy fertilization
• Temperature regime: Karewa elevation (800-1,600 meters above sea level) in Kashmir’s temperate climate provides cool growing season temperatures (10-15°C average) essential for corm development and flowering. Lower elevations experience excessive summer heat promoting flowering rather than corm enlargement

Production Concentration Geography: Saffron cultivation concentrates overwhelmingly in southeastern Kashmir karewas, particularly Pampore tehsil (administrative subdivision) of Pulwama district, which contains 86% of Kashmir’s total saffron area. District-level distribution shows Pulwama (1,750 hectares), Budgam (850 hectares), Srinagar (600 hectares), and Anantnag (300 hectares) as principal producers—all karewa-dependent. This geographic clustering directly reflects karewa distribution, demonstrating soil properties’ deterministic role in crop location.

Economic Impact: According to the Department of Agriculture, saffron provides employment to approximately 5% of Kashmir’s rural workforce—roughly 200,000-250,000 persons across farming, harvesting, processing, and trading activities. During peak harvest (October-November), saffron generates daily wage employment for temporary laborers at Rs. 300-500 per day in resource-limited rural areas, providing crucial cash income. The Geographic Indication (GI) tag awarded to Kashmir saffron in 2020 by India’s Geographical Indications Registry grants monopoly rights over the “Kashmir Saffron” brand globally, elevating export value. International prices reached Rs. 45,000-60,000 per kilogram in 2024 compared to Iranian saffron at Rs. 30,000-40,000 per kilogram, reflecting Kashmir’s premium positioning.

Secondary Crops: Almond, Walnut, and Apple Cultivation

Beyond saffron, karewas support extensive temperate horticulture producing high-value cash crops generating substantial income:

Almonds: Historically dominant on karewas, particularly in Budgam (comprising 80% of district agriculture) and peripheral areas. Almond orchards occupied cultivated areas on moderate slopes where saffron-cultivating families diversified income. However, recent agricultural shift reflects changing economic incentives: almond cultivation area collapsed from 16,775 hectares (2001-02) to 3,630 hectares (2017-18)—a 78% decline in less than two decades. Contemporary shift toward apple cultivation occurred because apples fetch higher market prices (Rs. 30-60 per kilogram versus almonds at Rs. 15-25 per kilogram) and receive greater government support through improved marketing infrastructure and technology dissemination.

Walnuts: Similarly cultivated on karewas in well-drained marginal slopes. Walnut cultivation provides diversified income, with nuts commanding Rs. 60-120 per kilogram in domestic markets and significantly higher prices in export markets (Rs. 300-500 per kilogram for processed walnut kernels). However, like almonds, walnut cultivation faced displacement by more lucrative apple farming.

Apples: Contemporary dominant karewa crop. Kashmir apple production expanded dramatically post-liberalization (1991+) as market access improved and government horticulture schemes prioritized apple productivity. Karewas in Anantnag and Baramulla, possessing excellent Dilpur loess soils, produce premium quality apples commanding higher prices than plains apples. Apple production generated Rs. 1,200+ crore annually by 2020, representing 40% of J&K agricultural GDP despite comprising merely 15% of cultivated area.

Economic Integration Model: Karewa-dependent agriculture exhibits backward linkage integration through processing industries: saffron supports testing laboratories, packaging facilities, and export companies (45+ registered saffron companies in Srinagar); apples support cold storage facilities (600+ cold storages in Kashmir Valley), grading and packing units, and juice processing; dry fruits support confectionery, oil extraction, and pharmaceutical companies. Forward linkages extend through tourism: saffron fields attract agritourism (farm visits generating Rs. 5,000-10,000 per foreign tourist); fruit orchards support rural homestays and agricultural tourism generating secondary income streams. This economic integration creates employment multipliers where direct farming employment generates indirect service sector employment in processing, trade, and tourism.

Case Study: Pampore Saffron Economy—Karewa Dependence and Viability Crisis

Pampore, encompassing 32 villages in Pulwama district, represents the world’s preeminent saffron concentration, producing 1,750+ hectares of Kashmir’s 3,883 hectares (45% share). The region’s saffron economy exemplifies both karewa economic significance and contemporary vulnerability.

Historical Economic Dynamism: Between 1997-2010, Pampore saffron generated approximately Rs. 800-1,200 crore annually at prevailing prices, supporting 45,000+ farming families. Agricultural surveys (2008-2010) documented that 93% of Pampore farmers derived 70%+ household income from saffron, demonstrating overwhelming economic dependence. The region possessed distinctive competitive advantages: Pampore karewas exhibit exceptionally high Dilpur loess composition providing superior saffron quality; the region developed institutional infrastructure (20+ saffron merchants, cooperative societies, testing laboratories) facilitating marketing and quality assurance; Pampore saffron commanded 15-20% price premium over other Kashmir regions owing to reputation. Intergenerational knowledge systems transmitted cultivation expertise across generations; agricultural communities accumulated specialized skills in corm selection, planting, harvesting, and post-harvest processing.

Contemporary Viability Crisis: By 2024, Pampore saffron economy faced severe destabilization through multiple converging pressures:

• Land Use Conversion: National Highway 44 (NH44) implementation in 2016 cut directly through Pampore karewas, occupying 300+ hectares of prime saffron land. Subsequently, residential real estate speculation accelerated: real estate developers purchased saffron farmers’ lands at Rs. 1.5-3 crore per hectare versus agricultural income of Rs. 2-4 lakh per hectare. This 10-15 fold price differential created overwhelming incentives for land conversion. By 2022, approximately 600-800 hectares of Pampore saffron land converted to residential-commercial use, reducing productive area by 35-45%.
• Climate Change Impacts: Pampore’s karewa-based saffron production depended historically on winter snowfall accumulation seeping into soil during spring-summer, providing moisture throughout saffron’s dormancy period. Climate change generated declining precipitation trends: snowfall declined 30-40% between 2010-2023 compared to 1990-2010 baseline; rainfall decreased from average 80 cm (1990-2010) to 55-60 cm (2015-2024). Karewa’s high porosity, advantageous in wet conditions, became disadvantageous during drought conditions—water drained rapidly leaving dormant corms desiccated. Farmers compensated through irrigation, but bore costs exceeding income margins by 25-30%, reducing profitability.
• Market Access and Price Pressures: Global saffron market experienced supply influx from Iranian and Afghan producers, compressing global prices from Rs. 50,000-60,000 per kilogram (2010) to Rs. 35,000-45,000 per kilogram (2024)—a 25-30% real price decline. Simultaneously, input costs (labor, fertilizers, irrigation charges) increased 45-50% over the same period. This cost-price squeeze reduced per-hectare net income from Rs. 300,000-400,000 (2010) to Rs. 80,000-120,000 (2024)—a 70% income decline. Consequently, younger generation farmers opted to abandon saffron, shifting to apples (higher but still declining prices) or non-agricultural employment.
• Institutional Deterioration: Cooperative societies managing collective marketing deteriorated due to governance problems, corruption, and inadequate government support. Middlemen captured increasingly large marketing margins: by 2022-2023, small farmers received merely 40-50% of international saffron prices, with 50-60% captured by merchants, transporters, and export companies. This margin extraction disincentivized production among direct cultivators, hastening abandonment.

Contemporary Economic Implications: Pampore’s saffron economy faces potential collapse, with production projected to decline to 300-400 hectares by 2030 if current trends persist. This represents not merely agricultural decline but societal transformation affecting 45,000+ farming families. The National Saffron Mission Program (NSMP, 2010-2014) investing Rs. 373 crore failed delivering projected 5 million ton production increase, highlighting policy implementation gaps and inadequate ground-level support. The GI tag (2020) provided marketing advantage but insufficient to offset structural viability erosion.

Alternative Economic Model: Government initiatives promoting high-density saffron cultivation (planting 50-60 corms per sq. meter versus traditional 30-40) and organic certification attempt revitalizing Pampore saffron. Limited success occurred in demonstration farms, but farmer adoption remained below 5% due to capital requirements (Rs. 4-5 lakh per hectare) exceeding most farmers’ resources. Direct marketing schemes bypassing middlemen (direct farmer-to-consumer sales through Delhi, Mumbai markets) benefit only 2-3% of farmers possessing sufficient scale and market connections. Thus Pampore exemplifies karewa agriculture’s vulnerability to combined land conversion, climate change, market pressures, and institutional failure pressures.

Threats to Karewa Productivity and Economic Sustainability

Illegal Mining and Extractive Industries

Contemporary threats to karewas exceed cultivation challenges, directly jeopardizing productive capacity. Between 1995-2025, approximately 20-30% of karewa formations in Pulwama and Budgam were excavated. Principal threats include:

• Infrastructure projects: The Qazigund-Baramulla railway (125 km) construction (1995-2009) extracted massive karewa quantities for raised embankment construction, requiring sustained soil availability. Srinagar semi-ring road construction initiated 2016+ continues karewa excavation for highway base material
• Brick kilns: Approximately 150-200 illegal brick kilns operated in Budgam, Pulwama, and peripheral karewas during 2010-2023, extracting clay while simultaneously denuding almond and walnut orchards for kiln fuel. Air pollution from brick kiln operation reached severe levels—particulate matter concentrations reached 500-800 µg/m³ (18-30 times WHO standards) during peak firing seasons
• Urban construction: Real estate expansion excavated karewas for residential and commercial development, with 600-1,000 hectares converted between 2015-2025

Environmental Consequences of Karewa Destruction

Karewa excavation generates cascading environmental harm exceeding direct land loss:

• Soil erosion: Excavated karewa surfaces lack vegetation and hardened subsurface protection, permitting rapid erosion. Slope angles exceed 30 degrees in many excavated sites, generating gravitational failure and mass movement. During monsoon precipitation (80-100 mm daily), eroded sediment reaches tributary streams at rates exceeding 10-15 tons per hectare annually—the double natural background erosion rate
• Jhelum siltation crisis: Eroded karewa sediment enters Jhelum River through tributary streams (Doodh Ganga, Shali Ganga, Vaishav, Romshi, Rambiara), creating excessive siltation. River channel silt accumulation rose from 200,000+ tons annually (1995-2005) to 400,000-500,000 tons annually (2015-2024), raising river bed elevation and reducing flood conveyance capacity. This directly contributed to historic Kashmir flooding (2014 flood, 2017 floods) causing 300+ deaths and Rs. 20,000+ crore property damage. 2021 Kashmir floods again demonstrated the karewa-loss-to-flood-risk linkage: heavy precipitation triggered devastating flooding due to reduced Jhelum channel capacity from karewa-eroded sediment deposition
• Groundwater depletion: Karewa excavation reduces aquifer recharge capacity. Porous Dilpur loess permitted precipitation infiltration reaching aquifers, maintaining groundwater levels. Excavation removes this recharge zone, causing 2-4 meter groundwater depth decline across Budgam and Pulwama (2010-2024). Wells previously yielding adequate water now dry; agricultural irrigation wells require deeper drilling and higher energy costs for pumping

Geological and Paleontological Loss

Scientific communities emphasize that karewa destruction represents geological erasure. Karewas preserve uninterrupted 4-5 million year paleoenvironmental record: pollen assemblages reveal paleovegetation and paleoclimate; fossil fauna (extinct megabeasts) illuminate past ecosystem composition; volcanic ash horizons enable radiometric dating correlating with global paleoclimate events. Once karewas are excavated, this unique historical archive is irretrievably lost, eliminating scientific research opportunities.

Specific sites suffer documented losses: Nagbal karewas (Ganderbal district) possessed exceptionally well-preserved 65,000-year paleoclimatic record; illegal mining rendered the site inaccessible by 2020. Khonmoh fossil park (noted 252 million-year-old fossils by Professor Abdul Majid Bhat) faced threatened destruction from construction activities. The scientific-economic value trade-off—short-term construction material gains versus irreplaceable long-term knowledge loss—remains unresolved in governance frameworks.

Conclusion

Karewas represent a distinctive geomorphological feature whose economic significance derives intimately from specific Pleistocene lacustrine formation processes creating unique soil properties—exceptional moisture retention combined with porosity and nutrient fertility—enabling specialized horticultural cultivation. The million-plus farming population depending on karewa agriculture generates Rs. 2,000+ crore annually from saffron, apples, almonds, and walnuts, providing livelihoods for 5-8% of Kashmir Valley’s population. Contemporary pressures—land conversion, climate change, market distress, and systematic excavation for urban infrastructure—threaten karewa sustainability, with 30% of formations already destroyed and remaining areas under accelerating assault. Recognition as geological heritage sites requiring statutory protection, coupled with alternative materials sourcing for infrastructure projects (utilizing flood-spill channel dredging and river embankment excavation), represents essential policy interventions preventing irreversible karewa destruction and the consequent collapse of regionally vital agricultural economies.